Food Regulations in the Usa Essay

Everyone has heard the stories about mad cow disease and other food-borne diseases coming into the United States from countries such as United Kingdom and China. Besides that locally, foodborne illnesses are among the top of deaths within the United States. Cause of these deaths, most could be prevented if better rules and regulations were in place federally and locally in the United States. In this paper I will be discussing insight on how the US Government can improve the effectiveness of state and local food safety programs. Food safety responsibilities at the state and local levels reside in too many agencies (health, agricultural, industry, etc. ) With all of these agencies it is hard for all of them to cooperate together when detecting and reporting said incidences to the federal level. Without an effort to build a comprehensive national regulation that cover the three basic elements of prevention, detection, and rapid response. When it comes to the area of surveillance, there is a lack in the communication chain between federal agencies, state, and local health agencies. A good example of this lack of surveillance was back in 2008, when Federal Drug Administration found traces of melamine in infant milk products. However, the FDA concluded melamine or cyanuric acid alone, â€Å"at or below 1 part per million in infant formula do not raise public health concerns† in babies. (2008 Chinese milk scandal) Melamine is a toxic chemical that can be harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. According to FDA scientists, melamine can be absorbed into the blood stream forming clots that can cause kidneys to malfunction. United States FDA’s limit was put at 0. 63 mg, but was later reduced to 0. 63 mg daily. The World Health Organization’s food safety director estimated that the amount of melamine a person could stand per day without incurring a bigger health risk, the â€Å"tolerable daily intake† (TDI), was 0. 2 mg per kg of body mass (â€Å"Melamine†) To eliminate such risks from entering into the United States, FDA needs to improve on monitoring and/or inspection of the food safety practices of foreign food producers and suppliers. A solution to this surveillance problem would be improved communications and collaboration between federal agencies, state, and local health jurisdictions involved in food safety surveillance. As well as promote access to information from multiple passive foodborne outbreak surveillance databases by federal, state, and local health jurisdictions such as Pulse-Net. With better surveillances put into place, the next step would to concentrate on the inspection and regulation phases. There was an article written in 1956 (Eat, drink, & be wary, 1956) that explains how FDA does not regulate everything the same. The article goes on to explain about how Florida oranges and the additives that are used and how three of the dyes were deemed â€Å"highly toxic. It also states that if the FDA were to make new laws, which can take years for them to be passed. Another way is to mandate uniformity in product dating so consumers and regulators can differentiate between production dates, â€Å"sell by† dates, â€Å"use by† dates, and if dates are based on food safety concerns or product freshness considerations. Woteki & Kineman wrote an article entitled â€Å"Challenges and approaches to reducing foodborne illness† how the science of foodborne illnesses are accelerating faster than laws that can protects against said illnesses. While American consumers benefit from one of the world’s safest food supplies, the existing framework is a patchwork of laws and regulations that are frequently inconsistent and lag far behind current scientific knowledge of the risks posed by foodborne pathogens and toxic chemicals. (Woteki, Kineman, 2003) With proper regulations now in place, working on proper inspection procedures would be the next step to ensure safer food being imported and exported within the United States. Federal government needs to support continued development of a uniformed food safety inspection program for all state and local health jurisdictions and encourage its adoption through federal funding. The FDA has been working on this by developing Model Retail Food Standards. (NEHA, 2011) However, to improve the regulations that are needed the FDA have areas for improvement; such as encouraging (but not mandate) more uniformity in regulatory codes nationwide. Another solution in the inspection process would be to have a secure database where all the proper documents to be accessible by user-defined personnel. There was an incident where a local health department had to file a request for a copy of the most recent inspection of a food manufacturing plant from a certain federal agency. By the time that request was processed, six months had passed and the inspection was outdated and useless. (NEHA, 2011) Overall, the United States does ok in the prevention and detection of severe cases of foodborne illnesses. However, I believe that the FDA should do a better job in communicating with state and local government to better prevent and detect said type illnesses. Again some ways that could happen is to try to get a uniformed code of regulations across nationally. Now by doing this I am not saying we will prevent foodborne illnesses totally but we, as a nation, would be better off to indicate and be able to take the corrective actions needed.

Merchant of Venice- Romantic Comedy or not? Essay

A romantic comedy is a play that integrates romantic elements as well as humour. In Shakespeare’s romantic comedies, the protagonists live happily ever after, and more often than not, the play ends with the tolling of wedding bells, with more than one couple getting married to create a joyful atmosphere. Love always seems to triumph over adversity in his romantic comedies. Besides, evil is also brought to light, exhibiting enlightenment and reformation. The genre of romantic comedy depicts societies that cannot accommodate the independent woman, often indicated by the hiding of her true identity in order to be able to function in society. Cross-dressing is often used to achieve this purpose and in addition provide comic relief. Yes. It is a romantic comedy. 1. The Merchant of Venice is often categorized as a romantic comedy. To some extent, the play does qualify as one. Firstly, of the three plot lines that run through the play, two are related to love and marriage- the relationships of Bassanio and Portia, as well as that of Jessica and Lorenzo. The play depicts the stories of these two couples, integrating the theme of romance, at the same time showing how they overcame obstacles to be together. 2. Secondly, in the final stretch of the play, Graziano and Nerissa, and Lorenzo and Jessica, get married. Bassanio and Portia have already been married in the earlier scenes, and all live happily ever after. The play ends happily with the union of the lovers, the return of Antonio’s ships and evil being brought to light, as we can see in Shylock’s conversion to Christianity. 3. Thirdly, cross-dressing is also featured in Merchant of Venice, as we can see in how the three females, Portia, Nerissa and Jessica dressed up as men. Portia and Nerissa were able to prove their capabilities as females, and Jessica was able to reunite with her lover this way. At the same time, the cross-dressing of Portia and Nerissa provides comic relief as we can see in the rings plot. These are all conventions of Shakespeare’s romantic  comedies, therefore, the Merchant of Venice can, to a certain extent be considered as a romantic comedy. No. It is not a romantic comedy. 4. However, there are also certain features in Merchant of Venice which do not correspond with the characteristics of a romantic comedy. The main themes of a romantic comedy are supposed to be bright and related to goodness (e.g. love), but in Merchant of Venice, the main themes also include evil, hatred, vengeance and discrimination. Firstly, the hatred between Antonio and Shylock can be witnessed in Act 1 Scene 3, where the former calls the latter names like a â€Å"cut-throat dog†. There is a furious exchange of insults, and this soon develops into a full-blown argument. The theme of hatred is displayed here, bringing forth an ominous atmosphere. 5. Discrimination is also a main theme in Merchant of Venice. Jews are a clear target of discrimination, as we can see in the case of Shylock being discriminated by Antonio, with the latter â€Å"spitting on my (his) Jewish gabardine†. Besides, racial prejudice is also shown, with the Prince of Morocco as an example. Although Portia does not say any colour-sensitive remarks to him and claims that all suitors possess a fair chance of wooing her, deep down she still deems him unsuitable and inferior because of his racial origins, hoping that none of his colour would choose the correct casket. 6. Deception and betrayal are also involved in the play, with Antonio as an example. He is perceived in public as an upright and respectable character, a gentleman, but in fact he has some dark qualities, like the discrimination and maltreatment of the Jews. This can be inferred from the fact that he spits at, insults and kicks Shylock whenever he sees him. Besides, Jessica can also be used as an example to illustrate the theme of deception and betrayal. She dresses up as a male in order to elope with her Christian lover. One could see this as a pursuit of her happiness, but more striking is not only the physical disguise that she wore, but the fact that she betrayed her religion and father. It would be deemed an ungrateful act no matter how ashamed she was of the fact that she was a Jew. 7. More impactful though, is the callousness and vengeance harboured by Shylock. Three thousand ducats are borrowed from him, with a pound of flesh from Antonio as the penalty if the money is not returned. Later in the play, Antonio receives news that his ships have been lost, stripping him of this financial ability to repay the debt. Shylock refuses to spare his life, and insists on having the â€Å"pound of flesh†. In Act 4 Scene 1, the court scene, Shylock asserts that he will still harvest Antonio’s flesh, even though the former was offered two times the sum of money, six thousand ducats. In this scene, Shylock’s thirst and desire for revenge are obvious, as well as his hatred for Antonio. His heartlessness and unwillingness to be merciful strikes us as evil acts. These are not very palatable, especially in a play categorized as a romantic comedy. This could very well lead to a tragic ending of Antonio being killed, if not for the wit of Portia. Conclusion Deception, discrimination, evil, vengeance, betrayal and hatred are all shown in this play. This is a stark contrast to the â€Å"pleasant† atmosphere that a romantic comedy is supposed to create. In some situations even, a tragedy could result. Therefore, the Merchant of Venice is a romantic comedy only to a certain extent, at least one that makes us think about deeper themes and issues.

Chapter 1 the Investment Environment

Chapter 1 The Investment Environment 1. 1. Real Assets versus Financial Assets (Page 30) ? Real Assets ? Determine the productive capacity and net income of the economy ? Examples: Land, buildings, machines, and knowledge used to produce goods and services ? Financial Assets ? Claims on real assets 1-2 1. 2. Financial Assets (Page 32) ? Three types: 1. Fixed income or debt Common stock or equity Derivative securities 2. 3. 1-3 Fixed Income ? ? ? ? 1-4 Payments fixed or determined by a formula Money market debt: short term, highly marketable, sually low credit risk (T-bills, certificates of deposits etc) Capital market debt: long term bonds, can be safe or risky (Treasury bonds, municipal bonds, corporate bonds, etc) Bond ratings: in terms of default risk, from very safe to junk Common Stock and Derivatives ? Common Stock is equity or ownership in a corporation. ? ? Derivatives ? ? 1-5 Payments to stockholders are not fixed, but depend on the success of the firm Value derives from pri ces of other securities such as stocks and bonds Used to transfer risk (hedge) 1. 3.Financial Markets and the Economy (page 33-36) ? ? ? ? ? 1-6 Information Role: Capital flows to companies with best prospects Consumption Timing: Use securities to store wealth and transfer consumption to the future Allocation of Risk: Investors can select securities consistent with their tastes for risk Separation of Ownership and Management: minimize the famous agency costs and maximize firm value Corporate Governance and Corporate Ethics How to reduce the agency problems (Page 34-35) ? ? ? ? 1-7 Compensation plans: bonus, stock options, etc.The power of the board of directors Outsiders’ monitor Threat of takeover: proxy contest, mergers, etc. 1. 4. The Investment Process (page 36) ? When constructing a portfolio, investors need to decide: ? ? 1-8 Asset allocation ? Choice among broad asset classes Security selection ? Choice of which securities to hold within asset class ? Security analysis to value securities and determine investment attractiveness 1. 4. The Investment Process (page 37) ? 1-9 Portfolio strategies ? Top-down: starts from asset allocation Bottom-up: starts from individual securities 1. 5. Markets are Competitive (page 37-39) ? Implications from â€Å"no-free-lunch† proposition: ? ? Risk-Return Trade-Off Efficient Markets (security prices have reflected all information) (Chapter 11-12): ? Passive management ? No attempt to find undervalued securities ? No ? attempt to time the market ? Holding a highly diversified portfolio Active Management ? ? 1-10 Finding mispriced securities Timing the market 1. 6. The Players (page 39-42) ? ? ? ? Business Firms– net borrowersHouseholds – net savers Governments – can be both borrowers and savers Financial Intermediaries: Pool and invest funds ? Investment Companies ? Banks ? Insurance companies ? Credit unions 1-11 Universal Bank Activities Investment Banking †¢ Underwrite new stock and bond issues †¢ Sell newly issued securities to public in the primary market †¢ Investors trade previously issued securities among themselves in the secondary markets Commercial Banking †¢ Take deposits and make loans †¢ †¢ 1-12 1. 7. Financial Crisis of 2008 Reading (page 42-51) 1-13

Racism in Disney Movies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Racism in Disney Movies - Research Paper Example ed lyrics are vastly clear as they depict the oriental society as crude and completely barbaric by citing erroneous and negative accounts of their culture. Although, the song has now been revised for its offensive lyrics, but the fact that it was there to begin with clearly shows the bad stereotypes and how it was propagated in earlier versions of the film. (Bernstein & Studlar, 1997, p. 17) This deconstruction of oriental culture within western cinema was first brought to notice by Edward Said’s (1978) theory of ‘Orientalism’, according to which Orientals were portrayed as crude and savages in the media to promote the superiority of western ideology. The racist portrayal was not only restricted to the Middle East, but the general depiction of the minorities was indeed quite warped. For instance, in Pocahontas, the story has been turned into a heartwarming romance between an Indian girl and an Englishman, with the story ending on a heartwarmingly happier note, wit h both ethnicities finally living in harmony. On the other hand, the real events were not as delightful as the one shown in the movie, which clearly represents how misguiding these movies are for the children. In the end, the Indian servant and Pocahontas’ union with her white lover clearly shows the west’s perceived superiority, which is blatantly and colorfully projected on to the big screens for the young children. In reality, the Native Indians were systematically wiped out to help the white faction gain the upper hand over the region; a painful historical fact that was skillfully masked in the film. Furthermore, in several instances the Native Indians are openly referred to as savages, which is further detrimental in establishing an image for the child. Even in Peter Pan, the Native Indians are... As a matter of fact, the obsession with the notion of ‘happily ever after’ is not only contained within the west, but all over the world young girls and boys are ardent fans of Disney motion pictures. Although, parents may not find anything bothersome regarding the content that they are feeding their children through the movies, but analysts have discovered a number of nefarious undertones within the innocent storylines of their movies. Although, Disney has tried their best to remove all the aforementioned racist lyrics but the fact that they are still present on previous copies of the movies continues to make it alarming for parents. Even though, some parents have deemed the presence of these racist elements as completely unimportant, but it is an undeniable fact that children are highly impressionable and thus are greatly influenced by the things they see on television. Disney movies may cause them to establish erroneous pre-conceived notions about people who seem to possess the traits that are present in all the unfavorable cartoon characters. They may hear a black man speaking and immediately make the association that they are lazy and idle like the crows in Dumbo and even believe that all Native Indians are crude and have bad grammar. These pre-conceived notions will only make it difficult for them to associate or identify themselves with other races on a human level. Therefore, it is not healthy for parents to continually expose their child to such content as it narrows down the child’s horizon and he continues to view foreignness in a negative light and children belonging to minority groups may grow up to view western values and cultures as completely superior to their own.

Social Reporting in Businesses Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social Reporting in Businesses - Coursework Example This essay declares that businesses pursue goals, objectives, and strategies that are highly likely to foster business continuity. This further takes the competitor factor into account. Where competitors are ignoring the dynamics of social reporting, a business can employ social reporting as an operational strategy that raises its short term and long term prospects. This is essentially seen in the energy sector. Firms in this sector have been shifting from energy sources that are environmentally harmful to green energy sources that best suit social and environmental concerns in today’s societies. As a result, players in this sector are now competing on green basis. The fashion industry, for example, is highly volatile. Its diversity and dynamism would require shifts in corporate social responsibility programs every time shift in fashion occurs. However, doing so is not only expensive, but also time wasting. This paper makes a conclusion that perceptions and expectations of the society shape social reporting in a very unique manner. Businesses develop values and cultures that allow them to effectively and efficiently serve the society. In order to fully communicate these values and cultures, businesses have to communicate them to the society. Moreover, the society cannot associate with business values and cultures that it is not aware of. For this reason, businesses have factored in their values and cultures in social reporting. This unique practice strengthens business-society ties in the corporate social responsibility context.

Why do you want to work at tenet Hospital Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why do you want to work at tenet Hospital - Essay Example I have always been a hardworking person and have the quality of working devotedly towards achieving a goal. Due to my attribute to work whole heartedly I was able to achieve a presidential distinction and became the member of Phi Theta Kappa which is the global respected society of universities and educational programs. The membership of this prestigious society provided me with opportunities for the growth and development of management, leadership and assistance, for a cerebral atmosphere for trading of thoughts, for active association for researchers and for motivation of attraction in carrying on with academic brilliance. To polish my skills I joined Jackson North Hospital which gave me the necessary experience required for this respected profession. The practicum in the Medical Surgery Department provided me with a well administered practical use of material studied in the past. I can speak in different languages and I believe that being fluent in these languages will help me to socialize and understand the problem of my patients more effectively. I have also worked as a Nursing assistant in the well known institution GRANNIE NANNIES which contributed in the learning of how to maintain hygiene, bath, dress transport, assist with feeding, and other things to provide a good level of nursing and treatment for the old, disabled grown-ups, or persons of every age with particular needs. Apart from that I have also provided my services in Boca Raton Community Hospital as a patient care assistant and monitor tech. I assisted with personal care, ambulation, distinguishing vital signs, Accu-chek and was respo nsible for tracking electrical impulses of patient’s heart. If given a chance to work as a nurse in Tenet Hospital, I believe I will leave no stone unturned to prove my worth. Because of my great collection of knowledge and exposure to different situations I am sure that I have the necessary stamina and

AN INQUIRY INTO THE EFFICIENCY OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT AS A MARKETING Dissertation

AN INQUIRY INTO THE EFFICIENCY OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT AS A MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS STRATEGY IN MORDERN SOCIETY - Dissertation Example Furthermore, factors such as the gender and age of the focus group were also taken into consideration as it greatly affects the findings of the study. On the basis of this study, it was observed that findings regarding the effect of celebrity endorsements as a marketing communications strategy could be divided into three key areas, namely – the perception of consumers with regard to a particular celebrity and his /her association with a brand / product or service; key factors which must be taken into consideration while choosing a celebrity for endorsing a particular brand or product; and finally develop a strategic model for Data Analysis: In order to measure the attitudes and perception of consumers towards a product celebrity endorsements various variables will be studied such as - their views on the advertisement; perception of the brand based on that advertisement; and the influence on their purchase decision. The differences in their perceptions with regard to the celebr ity endorsements will be measured on the basis of their attitudes towards single celebrity ads (i.e. a product endorsed by one celebrity) and multiple celebrity ads (i.e. same product endorsed by multiple celebrities). The data will be then analyzed on the basis of percentage of respondents in accordance with these variables such as gender, age, educational background etc. On the basis of the literature review, and the observations likely to be made on the basis of the personal interviews, it could be stated that the success or failure of any celebrity endorsement is a result of several attributes, which will be presented in the questionnaire. This includes - match between the product and the celebrity endorsing it; the choice of celebrity and the target audience; the popularity of the celebrity; the credibility or image of that celebrity in the industry; the values they endorse; their physical appearances; their appeal i.e. locally as well as globally; the likelihood of the risk of them (celebrities) getting involved in a conflict or a controversy; and the number of brands endorsed by the said celebrity. These attributes play a key role in influencing the consumer’s purchase decision and hence must be taken into consideration by the marketers / organizations prior to associating themselves with a celebrity. This information will be presented in the form of graphs, for better clarification the same is depicted in the figure below: Figure 1: Factors taken into consideration while selecting a celebrity for endorsing a given brand / product: The rating will be shown on the x axis while the attributes will be shown on the Y axis. The numbers 1 to 9 indicate the attributes mentioned above, which are taken into consideration by marketers while endorsing a product. The findings in this chart will be based on the observations made as well as on the findings observed in literature review section. In recent times, the global business has become highly complicated and hence the choice of a right celebrity for the product is extremely crucial for the organizations. Their decision strategy may

Hypothesis Testing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Hypothesis Testing - Assignment Example The null hypothesis is simple a statement that indicates that nothing is happening to the population. It shows that there is no relationship or difference in the population and the underlying facts still hold true. The alternative hypothesis on the other hand is a statement that indicates that something is happening to the population. It clearly shows that there is a difference or relationship in the population under study. Parametric tests estimate population parameters such as the mean while the nonparametric tests on the other hand help in the ranking and ordering of observations and data (Christensen and Johnson, 2011). It is very important that a choice be made between the use parametric and nonparametric tests. If there is sufficient evidence to ascertain that there is normal distribution in the population then it is appropriate to us parametric tests. When the population does not have a normal distribution then it will be appropriate to use nonparametric tests. A good example of a parametric test is the ANOVA while that of the nonparametric test is the Kruskal Wallis (Vogt,

Religious Life of Planet Earth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Religious Life of Planet Earth - Essay Example Finally, in traditional ceremonies, people from Ghana in Africa were noted to consult with traditional priests who act as the link between people and their gods (Brahm, 2005). This indicates the existence of some religion that makes people believe that these priests represented them before a higher power. The place of religion among the societies in the Earth would be said to be complex, fitting into social organisation as a whole and dominantly functioning in each of its part. Religion plays a critical role in fulfilling psychological needs. It helps human beings confront death and explain it. It relieves them of anxieties and fears of the unknown. During life’s crises such during serious illness, humans would turn to religion to ease their stress. It guides humans in making life’s decision, making them know what to do and at what time, thus providing the much needed psychological relief. Religion also serves to fulfil the social needs of human beings. It reinforces gr oup norms hence bringing about social homogeneity. This uniformity of belief plays a critical role in reinforcing group identity and binding people together. Hamilton (2010) further notes that religion sacralises norms and by promoting group goals, it makes social order legitimate. It plays a major role in giving identity. Finally, the social control function of religion has been appreciated, defining what would be considered as wrong or right. Rightful actions earn approval from gods while wrongful actions could cause supernatural retribution. For example, Quran, the sacred text of Islam provides a list of crimes which if committed would lead to punishment and describes mundane tasks such the specific foods to eat. Nonetheless, there have been other... The place of religion among the societies in the Earth would be said to be complex, fitting into the social organization as a whole and dominantly functioning in each of its parts. Religion plays a critical role in fulfilling psychological needs. It helps human beings confront death and explain it. It relieves them of anxieties and fears of the unknown. During life’s crises such during serious illness, humans would turn to religion to ease their stress. It guides humans in making life’s decision, making them know what to do and at what time, thus providing the much needed psychological relief. Religion also serves to fulfill the social needs of human beings. It reinforces group norms hence bringing about social homogeneity. This uniformity of belief plays a critical role in reinforcing group identity and binding people together. Hamilton (2010) further notes that religion sacralizes norms and by promoting group goals, it makes social order legitimate. It plays a major r ole in giving identity. Finally, the social control function of religion has been appreciated, defining what would be considered as wrong or right. Rightful actions earn approval from gods while wrongful actions could cause supernatural retribution. For example, Quran, the sacred text of Islam provides a list of crimes which if committed would lead to punishment and describes mundane tasks such the specific foods to eat.Nonetheless, there have been other interpretations of religion that goes against the functionalist approach.

Sports and Entertainment Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Sports and Entertainment Management - Essay Example For instance, we found out how important liquidity is for a company. Also, we have studied about various rules and principles that help pave a way towards success but rarely do we talk about the element of luck involved. There are many times when we are not sure whether we have taken a right decision and only time can unravel the truth. Some decisions turn out to be very fortunate while others turn out to be otherwise. The financial crisis of 2008 hit many businesses, large and small, and it was just bad luck for those businesses. It was not any fault on their part that they happened to be in such a dire situation. The most interesting aspect of this presentation, for me, was the emphasis on the formation of an effective team. Mr. X is a man of great skills. His academic qualifications may not be of the level that one expects from such a person but it is no secret that he is a man that possesses very important skill of creating and managing teams. He has the ability to multiply the s ize of any business that is handed to him. It is very important for a leader to assess the abilities of the members of his team. He needs to pick those people who can achieve something by working hard for it rather than just being lucky to have achieved it. The team members should also have an involvement in the decision-making process so that they can be more motivated and interested in doing what is asked of them. Further, the leader can never be complacent and must be active at all times. No one can be perfect and a good leader always looks to find out his weaknesses and of ways to overcome them. We are living in world which is changing so fast that a business always needs to investigate the effectiveness of its current strategy. The changes in technology are continuously putting the tastes of people in new moulds. This highlights the point that a business always needs to be aware of the changes in the tastes of its customers. The respected speaker currently belongs to the field of ice skiing and snowboarding. It is extremely hard to entice people to visit Canada and ski. However, there is a class of people that can afford to do this. But the problem is that as more and more gadgets are available for use at home, the interest in outdoor activities is diminishing. There is an overall decline in the world of sports due to this fact. Therefore, in order to establish whether one can be interested in skiing, a lot depends on how the individual is brought up. In the presentation, it has been emphasized that a leader should always be vigilant. It seems a very useful tip for a leader but it can also have a negative impact. A leader who is always looking for high standards might get too excessive in his approach. His constant concern with how the work is being done might irritate his team members and might make them think that he does not trust their abilities. The team members might take a lot of stress due to this excessive supervision which can have dire effects on their work. In my view, Mr. X is quite an autocratic leader because he defines very clearly what is expected from his employees, and holds the authority to make final decisions. It can be clearly seen from this presentations that when he asked his employees to give their â€Å"absolute best forecasts†, they were â€Å"incredibly conservative† when they gave him their numbers. This made me think why the employees that were â€Å"business people and finance people† did not give their honest opinions? This might be due to the fact that they were afraid that their boss would want more from them and they would be brought under pressure to deliver. It might have happened that they deliberately gave low forecasts so that they would not be

Industry competitions Essay Example for Free

Industry competitions Essay As per the case provided by Lencioni (2005), the industry was faced with a 30 % excess capacity and too many companies were chasing fewer customers. The global economy experienced a sharp downturn in 2001 and this lasted will into 2003. Equity prices had fallen and this combined with concerns of oil supplies had created an atmosphere of uncertainty. Sales of automobiles had declined in almost all the markets. BMW was listed 6th in the largest manufactures list and had a sold 1. 12 million vehicles in 2003 with sales of 41. 52 billion Euros while General Motors which stood first had sold 8. 5 million vehicles and had sales of 157. 19 billion Euros (p. 735). Please refer to the following illustration for details. Figure 2. BMW and the Five Major Companies in 2003 (p, 735) There was bitter rivalry among the manufactures and they indulged in price wars and the bid to lower the price, while costs were rising were hurting the finances. All the manufacturers made good quality cars that had less than 53 defects per 100 vehicles and clearly the cars lacked unique differentiators and customers had little way of knowing which was what. Clearly only cars that had very good designs and looks were favoured. All the companies wanted to reduce costs and a few companies had shifted the base to China and India. BMW with its reputation for excellent German engineering and good designs had a slight edge (p 735). Suppliers The suppliers of the industry included the hundreds of vendors, job workshops, parts suppliers and so on. They did not have much of an advantage or bargaining power since the car manufacturers were themselves in trouble and they could easily switch suppliers if a need arose (p. 736). Potential Entrants The treat of potential entrants was not very strong as new manufacturers could not scale to the global level quickly. But companies such as Toyota had created a strong brand awareness for quality, fuel economy and service and cars made by Toyota had become increasingly popular, at least in the mid class of cars. Potential entrants would have to devote enough resources for the engineering and then again spend on advertisements and companies were spending up to 50 billion USD on advertising and marketing and this worked to $ 2, 900 for each car sold. BMW had already created an image for excellent quality cars that were powerful, had good design and also very less problems (p. 737). Buyers It was a totally buyers market and there were hundreds of varieties of cars made by leading manufacturers and they could demand excellent quality. In addition, the buyers also demanded discounts, free insurance, zero percent interest loans and many other services. BMW cars were priced at the mid and the upper levels and in this category, buyers were extremely brand conscious. BMW has new versions such as the X5 and Z6 models along with other brands, but it was seeing declining sales. Research conducted in 2003 showed that consumers based their indirect and direct experience measured different brands performance against the criteria of brand excellence and cost of ownership (p. 736). Substitutes The problem with the automobile market was that the customers could not make out any difference between the cars since all the manufactures gave an emphasis on quality and had dedicated design engineers. In the low and mid class segments, the problem was much worse but BMW did not operate in this class (p. 737). Future Changes The future changes as described in the case and with reference to BMW is the distinctive identity that young and affluent European professionals had a desire for. Most drivers perceived high performance saloon automobiles as synonymous with BMW and it was a sign of affluence to own one of the vehicles. There was a pressing urgency to control costs and BMW had manufacturing bases in countries such as China were skilled labour was available at lower costs. It had plans to produce 1,50,000 cars by 2008 from its plants in China and was planning to invest 480 million USD by 2005 (p 738). Figure 3. BMW Growth and Performance Figure (p. 738) However, there was pressure to reduce the costs and orders to divest the expensive and ill Rover acquisition that was bleeding talent and money. There was pressure to sell the expensive models in China since Europe was saturated with high brand vehicles. Q 2. WHAT DIRECTIONS AND METHODS OF STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT DOES BMW APPEAR TO FOLLOW? Lencioni (p. 740) has pointed out that that BMW was in a tight financial position. In spite of the great sales talk, it still lacked the big money required to get the better of the big companies. The company was still a niche player and did not have the large volumes required and it had only a few models. Also the size of the company was modest and the future lay in the hands of the Quandt family that had propped up the company. They were vulnerable to acquisition if the Quandt family decided to dispose of the company or sell of their shares. The company was actually operating in the niche segment and in 2002, it decided to roll out a new model every 3 months and the models would range from the mini size to the Rolls Royce Class of vehicles. There were certain risks as increasing the output at the level planned by the company could threaten the very reason for BMWs great success, a strong but simple theme summarized by the line the ultimate driving machine. The company had been able to exploit this brand identity very profitably and globally wherever their niche could be found. The brand could be extended but there was a fear of diluting the brand. Also there was a fear that by introducing too many closely positioned brands there was the fear that one brand would cannibalise the other. Also by increasing the production of smaller cars could have the effect of reducing the historically high margins enjoyed by BMW as moving into the smaller cars meant earning lesser margins. Competitions in this lower segment were volume driven and operated with much lesser costs. Another issue was quality and with pressure on costs, the risk of quality lapses was bound to increase. The consequences of quality defects in the premium segments could be very heavy. Another route was outsourcing of components but again this meant a compromise on quality (p. 741). REFERENCES Lencioni Valeriano. 2005. BMW Automobiles. (eds) Exploring corporate strategy, by Johnson, Scholes and Whittington. pp: 734-741 Mc Donald Malcom, 1996. Strategic Marketing and Planning. Cranfield Management Series. ISNB 0749420960.

Blood Pressure & Pulse during exercise Essay Example for Free

Blood Pressure Pulse during exercise Essay Introduction: The blood pressure of a person is the force exerted by the blood on the walls of the arteries per unit area. The blood pressure unit is mmHg. The blood pressure of an individual is expressed in two ways, the systolic (due to the contraction of the ventricle) and diastolic, (due to the relaxation of the ventricle). The normal blood pressure of an individual is 120/80 (systolic / diastolic). Various factors can alter a persons blood pressure; this includes exercise, smoking, stress, diseases and age. Materials and Methods: Stepping stool, timer, blood pressure measurement kit (Sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope) and students in-groups of four. In each group one student acted as a patient, while the other acted as a physician or nurse. Another acted as the timekeeper. The fourth student acted as the data recorder. The base-line pulse rate and blood pressure of the patient (student) were obtained. The patient was asked to perform stepping up and down the stool 30 X within 5 minutes. After the stepping stool exercise, the patients blood pressure and pulse rate were immediately obtained again. After resting for 2 minutes, the measurements were repeated and also after 5 minutes. In order to obtain more data each student in the group acted as a patient and the measurements were repeated.

Benefits of international trade and economic integration in Sri Lanka

Benefits of international trade and economic integration in Sri Lanka Introduction Each country has its own natural resources, natural endowments and its benefits. Also countries are having limited resources and unlimited needs and wants. Different Country has different resources at different limit to fulfill their needs and wants. Therefore counties do try to overcome from these problems and do businesses with other countries through international trade and economic integration. Tea industry in Sri Lanka is one of the main business in which the country gets foreign currency and is also the main drink of ordinary Sri Lankans. The demand for tea products are increasing in the world market. So the article is about the Sri Lankan tea products, and the current economy of the country. Since the country is having mixed economy and also the economic system is playing vital role in the growth of the country. Also government intervention in the business is also included in the article. Government also has policies to achieve its objectives. Moreover this will include the market structure and market force as well as international trade and economic integration. Tea Products Our country Sri Lanka is one of the developing countries in Asia. The main businesses of our country include tourism, tea export, apparel, textile, rice production and other agricultural products. The main industries from which our country gains foreign currency are Tea business and Tourism industry. Recently, our country has become one of the countries exporting fair trade tea to the UK and other countries. Tea is one of the main drinks of ordinary people. And the demands for tea products are increasing day by day. There are many different tea products in market. Current Economy of Sri Lanka Our country has most strong growth rate of economy in recent years. Inflation has been high but declining, averaging 9.2 percent between 2007 and 2009. The government influences prices through regulations, state-owned enterprises, and subsidies for a wide array of goods. The inflation rate of consumer prices has been reduced in 2010. And the country is having high growth after the end of civil war. INFLATION RATE Figure 1 : Inflation rate (consumer prices) http://www.indexmundi.com/sri_lanka/inflation_rate_%28consumer_prices%29.html Our government is trying to reduce the unemployment and increase the foreign investment for the economic growth of the country. Our Sri Lankas tea plantation provides lots of job opportunity to Sri Lankans. Tea plantations consist of approximately 220,000 workers and dependent population. So it shows the tea industry consist the huge number of job opportunity and have reduced the unemployment for some extent. According to the GDP real growth rate it shows that 2002 the GDP of the country was declined and after that the economy has grown. http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=cev=66 Economic system and government intervention We are having mixed economic system where the government allows and helps privet businesses to grow in the market and also to open new businesses. Mixed economy is one of the main reasons for the proper use of resource available in the country and the government rules and regulation plays vital role. Since Economic policy has been a key topic of debate among the people who are interested in growth and development, the country have economic policies which consists distinct sections such as development strategy and, macroeconomic policy, agriculture, industry and technology development, employment and labour, institutional and governance issues, and social welfare and many others polices are for the benefit of the country or for the development of the country. And these policies help the country to have clear idea of the country position and are plans to achieve the aims of the country. Last year government has promised to provide loans for the Agricultural development of country. It also includes improvement and profitability to marginal tea land. And expect new land will come under Tea aided by these loan facilities. The main aim is to encourage small business entrepreneurship. As result households and individuals will be benefited and also it will increase the living standard and employment can be increased. The main aim of our government is to raising the standards of living and take in a higher quality of life by increasing income, employment level, and through the increase of total production of country, thereby actively contributing to the overall economic growth of our country. http://lankagazette.com/topstories/us-25mn-loan-for-tea-small-holders-to-develop-3500-hectares-of-new-land/ The policies decide about the budget of the country and how they are going achieve the objective. The governmental organization and institution helped to promote of tea industry in our country Sri Lanka in order to evaluate their role and contribution to the economic development of the country. During down fall of the industry, various government institutions were established to help and developed the industry, Also our government has considered the problem of a lack of skilled workers in the tea industry, and plans are underway to start a program to train the workers in necessary job categories. According to the discussion held with the minister of professional and technical training, who said that under the program, skilled workers would be trained in the categories such as field officers, production officers, technical officers, electricians and tea plantation workers. It shows that government helps the businesses to overcome from market failure through stability of the economy and through promotion of positive externalities, provision of public goods and services (financed through taxation) and through efficient resource allocation. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-7072587/Sri-Lanka-government-to-train.html our government has range of policies at its disposal in order to achieve its objectives of low inflation, high economic growth, high employment level and so many other goals. Therefore there are policies such as fiscal policy, monetary policy, exchange rate policy, income policy and supply side policy which can affect the businesses in many ways. Fiscal policy Fiscal policy is the policy of central government to influence the economy of the country. Therefore fiscal policy will help our government to achieve its macro objectives. And there are two types of fiscal policy Expansionary and Contractionary fiscal policy. Our country government is trying to have full employment and also the spending of the government is high so that our standard of living will be high at the same time economy will grow. So we can say that our government is towards Expansionary since taxation had been reduced and the spending of government is high in recent years. (Appendix 1) Monitory policy Through monitory policy the government controls the supply of money, the availability of money, and rate of interest in order to attain a set of objectives oriented towards the growth and sustainability of the economy. One of the core objectives of our country is economic and price stability. For 2011 country have decided to reduce the tax and tax reduction are aimed at boosting economic growth as it increase consumption which will help increase revenue. Our country Sri Lanka is one of the largest tea exporters through which the country gains income. The income through this export will help the government allocate the budget in the monitory and fiscal policy. We can say there is no wide fluctuation in the general price level in the economy which is helping to achieve sustainable economic growth and also the price fluctuation at low rate would not have any major influence on our economic decision regarding what to produce and how to produce, therefore enabling efficient allocation of resources in the economic leading to economic stability. (Appendix 2) Market Structure The tea industry in the Sri Lanka market is having a monopolistic market since there are lots of tea businesses involved in selling and buying. Sri Lanka is having large number of relatively competing firms in tea industry. There are fewer barriers to entry, so that it is fairly easy for firms to set up and to leave these markets. Each firm is having different products and it is highly differentiated from others. In tea industry in Sri Lanka is not a monopoly market, as there are many firms and not only one business has total control over a market and is not only one seller in the market. Also we cant say it is perfect competition since there are lots of competitors in the Sri Lankan market. Our Government and tea board provides full support and help many people to start their business in tea industry since it is one of the main export of country in which country gains foreign currency and also the demand for tea product is inelastic and demand is increasing. Considering the world market, Sri Lanka has an oligopolistic competition due to the tea producers being of less number. The entry barriers for tea are high in the world market due to the lack of natural endowment in different countries. Tight competition exists among the tea producers in the world and this makes Sri Lanka have an oligopoly in tea globally. And the products are highly differentiated one product to another. Market force The demand for our tea in the world market has increased. According to the Minister of Plantation Industries says that there is a special demand for local tea in Russia. Our country exported the largest quantity of tea in 2010 and highest quantity had been exported to Russia. Also now there are high demands for tea in the world market. So the country should get ready to produce sufficient tea to meet this demand. The main aim of our country is to become the worlds leading supplier of tea. http://www.itnnews.lk/?p=22477 Products Bulk Tea Packeted Tea Tea Bags Green Tea Instant Tea Other Tea -Silver Tips Tea Golden Tips Tea Sri Lankan praised as the best tea in the world. Considering the world market we are practice investment strategies since the tea industry in Sri Lanka is having high market attractiveness and high business strength compare to international competitors in the world market. Therefore the country was practicing differentiation strategies. Also the tea products of Sri Lanka are having high differentiation. More over most of the tea products in our country are in the star stage of BCG matrix. Therefore the industry is towards product development as it will increase core competitiveness and high competitive advantages of the business in the international market and also increase the foreign currency inflow as well. International trade International trade is very important for or country as it helps in many ways for country to overcome from different problems. Our country is not self-sufficient and international trade helps our county to import the resources or goods needed. Also helps to export the products to other country which is bringing foreign currency to the country. International trade has contributed immensely development of our nation. International trade has been a platform for globalization also it reduces inequalities and facilitated growth in economy of our country. International trade is helping the country to introduce global competitiveness as most of the domestic business units have a tendency to become very efficient being exposed international competition. Also the businesses can easily access to technological innovation and will be able to utilize the latest technology to boost their productivity. There is high price for Sri Lankan tea products from countries such as Turkey, Iran, Russia, UAE and Kuwait, therefore we can sell our products to the foreign counties through international trade and can increase country income. Also we can import the products which our country is in need through international trade. Benefits of economic integrations Economic integration helps to reduce or deduct customs duty within the integrated area, so it helps to reduce the prices for both distributor and the customers. Through this our country can increase profit by increasing demand as we can acquire goods and services at much low cost due to removal of trade barriers and tariffs completely. It also helps to have freedom and helps to have market expansion and more foreign investment into the country and great diffusion of technology. It also will increase the employment opportunities in the country as well. Our country integration with World Trading Organization helps to reduce customs duty or trade barriers and tariffs with in the integrated area. There are 153 countries in the World Trading Organization (WTO) and have general agreement on tariffs and trade. Our country Sri Lanka is one the country in WTO. And the rules of this integration covers trade in all goods and helps international trade flow as smoothly and freely as possible and reduce risk in doing oversea businesses. So our country can export products with low price since our country is part of WTO and through integration the trade barriers around the world are lower than they have been before. So the cost of product can be reduced and we can sell our products much more less price. And also imported products we can get at low price. Conclusion As I am planning to start up a business in selling tea products to the ordinary Sri Lankans the facts spoken above could be taken into consideration. As our county tea products are high quality and tastiest tea products due to the natural endowments or the climate and whether of the country allows the tea firms to harvest the best quality tea products. Also the demands for tea products are rapidly increasing, and due to increase in demand a high supply could be generated through starting a tea business. Moreover countries economy is rapidly growing and lot of development projects are been done. Government also trying to reduce tax and the spending of government on infrastructure is increasing which shows the macroeconomic aims are to have economic growth, full employment, and also high living standard with the control of the balance of payment situation. In 2010 the government pledged loan facilities for agricultural development and is designed to the benefit of Tea small holders, small producers, women, landless householders and young people in rural area. These facts and natural endowments and government support therefore it initiated me to start a tea business in Sri Lanka. Our business vision To be the leader in tea industry in Sri Lanka, and also spreading our presence in all key economic geographies in Sri Lanka To be the best quality tea product producer to the nation and the most efficient and affordable price provider in tea product. Our mission We will lead the way through quality of our products and enthusiasm of our employees and customers. We will serve all our communities to the best of our ability, try always to listen to their needs and so build total customer confidence and satisfaction. Key objectives Get profit $ 20000 within 1 year through introducing a new product and increasing sales and also through cost cuts and providing with affordable price to customers Increase customer perspective 10% or brand name 10% through increasing brand awareness, through promotions and value added services within 2 years. Stakeholders of the business Customers Customers are one of the key stakeholders of the business as they are vital to the survival of the business. We will try to provide excellent services to its customers while selling the product and has excellent relationship through respects, friendly services and so on. Investors We will try to give maximum benefits to investors and also have good relationship with them. Through website or through other communication method we will provide information about the business performance. Employees Employees are the other key stake holders of the business. We will provide training programs to employees to familiarize them companys policy and working practice. Also will provide many packages and development opportunity to its employees. Government Government can influence and affect business in number of ways. We have to follow the rule and regulation that is made by the government. Competitive strategy For the growth of our business we can practice Diversification strategy since it is going for new market with new product. Even though this involves high risk, because the market is new in which the business has no experience and also it will take a business outside its area of expertise. Also we can practice cost leadership as here our business can tries to reduce the price or attempt to produce goods or service at lower cost than the competitors in the market. This is to charge lower prices than the rivals and to compete in price wars that may take place. This strategy high light passing on the cost advantages to the customer through cutting down cost in every junction of the value chain or emphasizing on economies of scale in order to give customer cost benefits. Implementation

Essay --

Juxtaposing Justice: Retribution to Rehabilitation Tà ©a Francesca Price Arizona State University Timelessly capturing in written works the complexities of the human condition is a feat rarely accomplished by writers. However for the â€Å"Father of English Literature,† Geoffrey Chaucer, and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist, William Shakespeare, conveying the essence of humanity artistically was seemingly effortless. Both observant authors are known for their ability to compose characters that juxtapose recognizable human characteristic such as hatred and love, jealousy and goodwill, and justice and mercy. Within Chaucer’s 14th century collection of stories entitled The Canterbury Tales is a comical narration of a somber topic called The Wife of Bath’s Tale, which draws speculation for the justice served to a Knight of Camelot who rapes a maiden. While King Arthur would have the Knight executed for his heinous actions, Queen Guinevere grants the knight a year and a day to discover what women desire, the very thing he disregarded whilst committing his crime. Another work that features a similar concept of justice is the Elizabethan era comedy, The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare; through his own unique and mastered skill, Shakespeare embodies the quality of justice precisely in the character of Jewish moneylender Shylock, who in dogged pursuit of a bond against the merchant Antonio, receives the very fair dealing he craves through the character of Portia, the personification of mercy. Each author observed and understood that through human weakness justice is often undermined, for people disobey society’s laws to their own iniquitous ends. Their works depict a transformation in the practice of justice, from... ...Press released an article called â€Å"Death Penalty Isn’t a Deterrent on Murder Rate: National Research Council,† which discussed the lack of evidence in the effectiveness of the death penalty deterring crime. The article identifies issues that include not considering alternatives to capital punishment or sufficiently weighing how killers assess the risk of execution. The authors of the report are quoted to be â€Å"disappointed to reach the same result as a 1978 study†. If retribution as justice has yet to be proven beneficial to society, an alternative to consider is the concept of justice outlined in works like The Wife of Bath’s Tale and The Merchant of Venice. They are important pieces of literature to promote, for despite their age and comedic style, both works prompt a debate over the concept of justice and in what way justice is most effectively served.

Comparative Analysis of Cultural Ideologies in Norway and the United St

Comparative Analysis of Cultural Ideologies in Norway and the United States The intent of this paper is to examine individualistic and communitarian cultural ideologies within two distinctly different political environments. The first challenge in comparing two nations is deciding which approach is most appropriate. There are several approaches in political science that have proven most beneficial when making comparisons. This study will use a comparative government approach to examine the political institutions, processes, constitutions, and functions of government within each of the two countries selected. The countries that have been chosen for this study are United States and Norway, respectively. Gregory Scott believes that the fundamental aspects of human interaction in society are the need for community (unity) and the need for individuality. The argument is that the entire history of politics is largely the story of how communities and nations resolved the inherent conflict between the universal needs for community and individuality. With that, the topic that this paper tends to address has emerged, within the study of politics in this class and others, as the single most dynamic in scope and in implication. Freedom, equality, and justice combine to build a substantial argument for the individualistic ideology. Authority, order, and democracy are all building blocks for the argument of the communitarian. Scott notes that much of what motivates individualist is a strong desire for freedom. This author also argues that we are all interdependent and authority is justified by the need to bring order to societies competing values and thoughts. In studying the history of humanity, the battleground that has been formed between the need for individuality and unity is undeniable. A person’s view of the nature of humanity is fundamental to their view of government, and its scope. If people are seen as dangerous, then a government to protect people from that danger is most appropriate. If people are viewed as capable of fulfilling their own creative potential, you may want a government that protects individual liberties (Scott, 47). These are all examples of core values for the entire foundation of government and of politics. This argument, for the use and scope of government, is divided into many different arguments that address basic issues o... ...hild benefit scheme, and the increase of taxes in electricity and heating oil consumption. Community Statistics v Official Name: The Kingdom of Norway v Population: 4,504,000 as of Jan. 2001 v System of Government: Constitutional Monarchy v Geographical Area: 385,155 sq. km. v Monetary Unit: Norwegian kroner, NOK v Coastline Length: 21,192 km. v Economic Indicators: Inflation rate (2000) 3.1%; Gross Domestic Product (1999) 1,192,826 million NOK; Gross Domestic Product per capital (1999) 267,328 United States of America According to political scientists, the United States is considered and â€Å"individualistic† society. A society that is quite capable in operating on its own, and not really relying on others to instruct them in ascertaining the very essentials of having a functional, independent, way of living. To fully understand the depths of the United States’ individuality, several ideas must be explained. First, one must understand the role of government in the United States. Secondly, there has to be an understanding of the evolution of the United States as a society, and the formation of its political structure and ideologies. Next, an

The Sun Also Rises :: Essays papers

The Sun Also Rises "This is the way the world ends. This is the way the world ends. This is the way the world ends. Not with a bang but a whimper." (T.S. Eliot, The Hollow Men) "†¦but a whimper.", Eliot was writing of the Lost Generation. The period after World War I were people were disillusioned, wandering through their life lost, not sure what their goal was. In Ernest Hemmingway's novel, The Sun Also Rises, the Lost Generation and their inability to cope with the change around them is the focus of the novel. The Sun Also Rises is a beautifully written account of a generation lost in an unknown cause that leaves them abandoned in the end. Hemmingway wrote this story in a unique fashion. The book is written with no apparent plot, that is, there are not twists, intrigue, or goals for the characters. The plot is simply the story itself. That is what Hemmingway wanted, he wanted the reader to read this story and recognize the loses and struggles the characters encounter through experiences they had. The Sun Also Rises takes place in France following the First World War. The main character and narrator is Jake Barnes a newspaper reporter and war veteran. His life corresponds directly to that of the Lost Generation, for he is the Lost Generation. Jake lives a very simple life, he gets up and eats, goes to work, goes out with someone for lunch, goes back to work, than goes out with friends to eat supper and drink the night away. Jake's life is very similar to all others of that time; he is not an exception. To prove this Hemmingway shows the bars and restaurants packed at night with people just like Jake and his friends. Jake's long time friend and once lover, Brent Ashley is a very beautiful and unruly woman. She makes her first appearance in the novel as she walks into a bar to meet Jake, she is followed by a group of gay men. This point is very crucial to the novel because it strikes a major point of conflict between Jake and Brett. Jake had suffered an injury in the war and was impotent because of it. Jake is self-conscious of this fact and was very upset when Brett walked in with men that were not impotent and yet failed to take advantage of it.

Multicorporate structure

As early as the 1980’s there has been significant effort to create management practices in the industry that parallel business strategies because of the realization of the need for sustainability as much as quality services (Alexander et al, 1988). The advocacy is now influencing current health administrators to adopt these practices on a structural level: organization are being reengineered operationally and to accommodate non-traditional and non-medical specific functions such as marketing, public relations and organizational development (Griffith & White, 2006). Healthcare organizations that have multicorporate structures consider themselves not only healthcare providers but as an organization that has to be professionally productive socially responsive and operationally independent. This is not to infer that traditional healthcare organizations preclude these characteristics only rather that multicorporate structured healthcare organization follow more closely the structure of an enterprise Going Multicorporate Structured Technology, communication, culture and politics have changed perceptions regarding the industry and thus are changing the means of delivering services. For example, in evaluating accounting and financial management (A/FM) performance, the adaptation of performance benchmarking principles have allowed for early threshold performance measurements of health programs (Griffith & White, 2006, pp. 455-456). In an effort to measure productivity levels of technology programs the Australia’s health and social services, the Australian Government Productivity Commission (2006) considered the marginal effectiveness propensity of the inclusion of technology in medical procedures as well as sensitivity analyses and compared them to the influence of technology in other government services to determine the impact to health services. This effort supports Griffith and White’s view of the need for sophisticated surveillance and forecasting activity in multicorporate structured organizations (pp. 564-565). In a similar effort, the United Kingdom based Democratic Health Network (2006) established community support and communication networks to support and monitors health awareness and delivery of services. The effort has developed significant funding for community-based health activities as well for the Democratic Health Network itself, greater participation in programs and higher satisfaction rating of health services. According to Griffith and White, these efforts can be considered as part of the healthcare organization’s marketing strategy because the efforts create awareness, reinforces the significance of the organization to the public, and at the same time allows for insights that can be developed to strategic advantages (pp. 610-613). Conclusion Considering the demands on healthcare today, there is need to develop effective channels for services, streamline operations and maximize resources. According to Leatherman (2001), there has been a recognized need in the health care industry to reevaluate its social roles and the social developments affecting the nature of current health care needs. This can only be accomplished if an organizations structure is able to respond to healthcare professionals and the public effectively, which can only be possible if the organization’s structure allows for the development of such competencies. The need for multicorporate structures does not invalidate the social mandate of healthcare institutions but only endeavors to make a strategy-based and sustainable enterprise. The adoption of corporate practices in healthcare is an effort to institute administrative and competitive competencies in healthcare organizations. References Alexander, J. A., Morlock, L. L. and Gifford, B. D. (1988). The effects of corporate restructuring on hospital policymaking. Health Serv Res   June; 23(2): 311–337. Griffith, John R. and White Kenneth R. (2006). The Well-Managed Healthcare Organization, Sixth Edition. Chicago, IL: American College of Healthcare Executives Leatherman, S. (2001) Measuring up: Performance indicators for better healthcare. OECD Observer No. 229 Australian Government Productivity Commission (2006). Impacts of Advances in Medical Technology in Australia. Retrieved August 11, 2007, from Democratic Health Network (2006). Accountability of the Health Service. Retrieved August 11, 2007   

National Stepfamily Resource Center Essay

The first step towards blending of a stepfamily is both parents taking a commitment to constantly work at their problems and not give up when the going gets tough. Both of them have to understand the complexity of the situation before getting into it, since children with sensitive minds are going to be involved in the process. They also have to consider the financial part of the whole deal, well in advance, to prevent conflicts at a later time (APA Health Center 2004). The biological parent has to convey the idea of starting a stepfamily to the child, long before it actually becomes a reality. This is to ensure that the child is given enough time to cope up and become comfortable with the new arrangement. Before starting a stepfamily, both partners have to ensure that they have sorted out issues from their past marriages. They should take adequate time to heal and recuperate from the old relationship, so that they are emotionally ready to start another relationship. After all, a bad relationship certainly cannot sow the seeds for a successful stepfamily. Kids are very susceptible to their environment during their formative years. Hence, both parents should exercise extreme caution and restraint to prevent the child from witnessing conflicts and arguments, in order to be healthy role-models (Way2Hope). Parents should be mentally ready to handle disappointments and maladjustments at first, since a stepfamily is certainly not designed to be an ideal arrangement. The key is to gradually build respect and trust with members of the stepfamily. Children need to be constantly reassured that they were not responsible for the breakup of the previous marriage with the biological parent, especially if the cause of separation is the death of a parent. There needs to be an open communication channel with the children in the form of small discussions, so that children are not left stranded with confusions, unanswered questions and pent-up emotions. A parent has to ensure that stepchild and biological child are not discriminated and given equal attention. It is indispensable for a parent to talk alone with the biological child as well as stepchild, so that they can understand each other better. They have to find ways to connect to the children by forming new family traditions that take place on a regular basis. One of the aspects of a closely-knit family is doing things together, which brings in team spirit and the joy of sharing. Once a family tradition starts to happen regularly, it gives a sense of togetherness to the children and would be a step in the right direction towards building a blended family. Family game nights, monthly picnics, yearly vacation and Thanksgiving Day dinner could all very well be good family traditions that could live on for years, maybe even generations. Care has to be taken to ensure that the relationship between the stepchild and biological parent is sustained, since the child needs care from the biological parent to experience a wholesome childhood (All About Life Challenges). However, children growing under joint custody of separated parents end up being raised under two households with different rules and practices (National Stepfamily Resource Center). Hence, this may lead to the child getting mixed messages from both parents and being forced into a state of confusion. Hence, both the biological parent and step parent have to talk with each other and come to a conclusion about the methods of disciplining and treating the child. Even after doing these things right, if the child finds it hard to adapt to the blended family, the parents should give it some time for things to work their way out naturally and be open to the idea of seeking professional help if needed. Giving children space to make up their own minds at their own pace is the key to building new relationships with them. For instance, it is not fair to expect a stepchild to address a step parent as â€Å"dad† or â€Å"mom† since their biological parent is not replaceable (Jaffe et. al 2008). In due course of time, family bonds would eventually grow stronger as the child gains respect for the step parent. Reference: All About Life Challenges. Blended Families – Common Sense. Retrieved 9 July 2008, APA Health Center. (2004). Families: Making Stepfamilies Work. Retrieved 9 July 2008, Jaffe. J, Segal. J, Hutman. S & Barston. S. (2008, 8 January). Blending Families: a Guide for Stepparents. HelpGuide. Retrieved 9 July 2008, National Stepfamily Resource Center. Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved 9 July 2008, Way2Hope. Blended Family Problems. Retrieved 9 July 2008,

Linguistics Plus Essay

A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti â€Å"mama†, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata â€Å"mama† yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai â€Å"pembentuk† respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals†¦ in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. â€Å"Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda †¦ secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa â€Å". As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni â€Å"kebiasaan teori audiolingual† atau murni â€Å"kognitif-kode teori belajar† bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis â€Å"kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori†. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak â€Å"membantu! â€Å", Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"tolong bantu saya† atau â€Å"bisa Anda helm saya? â€Å", Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"bisakah kau membantu saya â€Å"dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk â€Å"cap di† kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: â€Å"bukti untuk ‘periode kritis’ dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya â€Å"(hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots† atau â€Å"goed†, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots of the sky† ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. – different motivation. – Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. – When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.