Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay

Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay Stereoisomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic compositions (molecular formulas), but with different bonding arrangements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in space. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers (also called structural or positional isomers) are molecules with the same atomic composition but different bonding arrangements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone . All of these compounds have the same atomic composition (C6H6O2), but different bonding arrangements of atoms and are thus distinct chemical entities with different chemical and physical properties. Stereochemistry (from the the greek stereos,meaning solid) refers to chemistry in three dimensions. Since most molecules are three dimension , stereochemistry ,infact, prevade all chemistry. It is not so much a branch of the subject as a point of view, and wheather one choose to take this point of view in any given situation depends on the problem one wants to solve and on the tools one has available to solve it. We factorize stereochemistry into its ststic and dynamic aspects.STATIC stereochemistry (better called stereochemistry of molecules) deals with the counting of stereoisomer, with their structure, with their energy and with their physical and most of their spectral property. DYNAMIC stereochemistry(stereochemistry of reaction) deals with the stereochemical requirement and stereochemical outcome of chemical reactions, including interconversion of conformational isomerms. If we represent the following imaginary molecule with no stereochemistry, there is nothing apparently special about it: However, if we represent it fully, including the position of atoms in space, it becomes apparent that the description above is vague, as it encompasses two molecules; those below: This is what stereochemistry is we can define compounds into many way and can also originate many new compouds. So stereochemistry is chemistry that studies the property of isomers. HISTORY Historically the origins of stereochemistry stem from the discovery of plane polarized light by the french physicist MALUS. In 1815 biot note that certain natural organic compounds rotate plane polarized light as ARGO(1811), discovered that a quartz plate, cut at a right angle to its crystal axis ,rotates the plane polarized light through an angle proportional to the thickness of the plate. S ome quartz crystal rotate towards left while some to the right. However in 1847 LOUIS PASTEUR find that equimolar solution of seprated mixture have equal but opposite optical activity. In 1874 LEBEL and VANT-HOFF proposes that carbon with 4 attachment is tetrahedral and a molecule having a teahedral geometry will exist as pair of two isomer. ISOMERISM Isomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic compositions (molecular formulas), but with different bonding arrangements of atoms or orientation of their atoms in space. Based on this definition, several types of isomerism are possible including constitutional, configurational, and conformational isomerism. Constitutional isomers (also called structural or positional isomers) are molecules with the same atomic composition but different bonding arrangements between atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone . All of these compounds have the same atomic composition (C6H6O2), but different bonding arrangements of atoms and are thus distinct chemical entities with different chemical and physical properties. GEOMETRIC ISOMERISM Geometric isomers have the same empirical formula or molecular formula and also the same structural formula, but have a different relative arrangement of the substituent groups. For example, the two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene (Figure 2) have the molecular formula of C2H2Cl2, and the same structural formula of Cl(H)C=C(H)Cl, but the relative position of the two chlorine atoms can either be the same side of the C=C double bond (i.e., cis, see Figure 2a) or on opposite sides of the C=C double bond (i.e., trans, see Figure 2b). The use of cis and trans is not limited to organic compounds such as olefins, but can also be used in metal complexes, e.g., Figure 3. Figure 2: The two geometric isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. Figure 3: Examples of (a) cis and (b) trans geometric isomers for metal complexes. When it is not possible to describe geometric isomers by the terms cis or trans, the terms facial (fac, Figure 4a) or meridinal (mer, Figure 4b) are commonly employed. Examples of (a) fac and (b) mer geometric isomers for metal complexes. POLARIMETRY AND OPTICAL ROTATION Polarized light is obtained by passing ordinary light through a polarizer , such as nicol prism.The orientation of the polarizers axis of polarization determines the plane of the resulting polarized light. OPTICAL ACTIVITY:- Unpolarized light from a suitable source is made to pass through a polarizer that usually consists of a pair of crossed Nichol prisms. The light leaving the polarizer is plane polarized and, in the diagram, the angle of the Nichol prisms has been adjusted to produce vertically polarized light. This light is then passed through a tube containing the sample. If the sample is optically active, the plane of the polarized light will be rotated, as shown in figure The extent of rotation will depend on the polarizability of the substance and its concentration. The light from the sample cell is then passed through another pair of crossed Nichol prisms called the analyzer. The analyzer prisms are then rotated so that the transmitted light is again vertically polarized. The angle through which the analyzer has been turned is called the angle of polarization. Clockwise rotation of polarized light is designated as (+) and anti clockwise rotation as ( ). The established method of defining rotatio n is that the (+) isomer is termed dextro and the ( ) isomer laevo. Optical activities of enantiomer A pair of enantiomer are distinguised by their optical activites because a pair of enantiomers rotates the plane of polarized light by equal amounts in opposite direction. In a mixture of two enantiomers, each contribute to the optical rotation in proportion to its concentration.It follows that a sample containing equal amounts of two enantiomer must have an observed optical rotation of zero. Enantiomer of tartaric acid is: ENANTIOMER Enantiomers are compounds that have the same ordering of atoms as each other, but that differ from one another when viewed in three dimensions. The compound drawn to the left is an enantiomer because it has the H3C group projecting up from the page toward the reader. The corresponding enantiomer would have the H3C group projecting below the page away from the reader. A racemic mixture refers to a 50:50 mixture of two corresponding enantiomers. CHIRALITY Chirality is a structural property of an object. An object is said to bechiral if its mirror image can not be superimposed with itself by the means of rotations. The most familiar example of a chiral object is our hand. To see this, we first have to convince ourselves that our two hands are mirror images of each other. Then we can spend hours rotating our two hands around and trying to superimpose them point-to-point, only to find out that it is impossible. Thus a human hand is a chiral object. An object is said to be achiral if its mirror image is its exact replica DIASTEREOMER They are different physical/chemical properties in chiral/achiral environments. Stereoisomers that are not enantiomer are called diastereomers. FISHER PROJECTION Fischer projections are used to visually describe various isomers of the same compound in two dimensions. They are also used as a basic test for optical activity (or chirality). The Fischer projection looks like a cross, with the (invisible) asymmetric carbon located at the points where the lines cross. The horizontal lines are taken to be wedges, or bonds that project out of the plane of the paper. The vertical lines are taken to project away form the viewer, or back below the plane of the paper, as dashed lines. CONFIGURATION Configurational isomers are defined as molecules of identical atomic composition and bonding arrangements of atoms, but different orientations of atoms in space, and these different orientations cannot interconvert freely by bond rotation. Since these types of isomers differ only in relative spatial orientations of atoms, they are commonly referred to as stereoisomers. Configurational stereoisomers are subcategorized as optical isomers (enantiomers) or geometric isomers (Fig. 2), depending upon the hybridization state and geometry of the atoms that impart the properties of stereoisomerism and the overall structure of the molecule. Stereoisomers of this type are distinct chemical entities that may have different chemical and physical properties. CONFORMATION Conformational isomers (conformers) are stereoisomeric forms characterized by different relative spatial arrangements of atoms that result from rotation about sigma bonds. Thus, unlike configurational isomers, conformers are interconverting stereochemical forms of a single compound. STEREOCHEMICAL CORRELATION The absolute configuration of most organic compounds are determined instead by using chemical reaction correlate with other compounds of known absolute compounds is known as stereochemical correlation. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL REACTION No chemical reaction can be planned without stereochemical details,and no chemical reaction can be planned without considering problems oe stereochemistry that might arise. A.STEREOCHEMICHEMISTRY OF ADDITION REACTION An addition reaction can occur in either of two stereochemically different ways,called syn addition and anti addition. Stereochemistry of an addition can be determined only when the stereochemically different modes of addition give rise to stereochemically different products. Syn and anti addition gives different products only when both carbons of the double bond becomes carbon stereocentre in the product. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SUBSITITUTION REACTION A substitution reaction can occur in two stereochemically different ways, called retention of configuration and inversion of configuration then x and x have the same relative stereochemical position. Substation rxn with retention of configuration is It implies that if x and x have the same relative priorities in the R,S system then the carbon that undergoes subsititution will have the same configuration in the reactant and the product. When the subsititution occur with inversion of configuration then x and x have different relative stereochemical positions. Subsititution with inversion of configuration is: They have same relative priorities in the R,S system, then the carbon that undergoes substitution must have opposite configuration in the reactant and the product. Stereochemistry of   Reactions Two products are formed when a chiral substrate that possesses an asymmetric, electrophilic carbon is applied in an   reaction. One of them has the same absolute configuration as the starting product (if, according to the CIP rules, the leaving group and the nucleophile have the same position in the priority order of the substituents), which is called retention. In contrast, the other product possesses the opposite absolute configuration, known as inversion. In reactions, the nucleofuge exits the substrate before the nucleophilic attack can ever occur. Thus, an intermediate carbocation is then formed. Due to the carbocations trigonal planar shape, its two enantiotopic sides are susceptible to attack by the nucleophile with the same probability. Stereochemistry of  Reactions If a pure enantiomer is applied to an reaction, three different stereochemical results are conceivable: The initial spatial arrangement of the reaction centers substituents remains (retention). The initial substituents spatial arrangement is inverted (inversion). Retention, as well as inversion takes place. If retention and inversion occur to the same degree, the reaction yields a racemate (racemization). Stereochemistry of E2 Elimination In the E2 elimination reaction, the carbon-hydrogen sigma bond and the carbon-leaving group sigma bond must lie in the same plane. This allows the orbitals to begin to overlap to form the pi bond as the bonds to the hydrogen and the leaving group are broken. There are two possible planar arrangements of these bonds: both on the same side of the C-C bond (syn-coplanar); or on opposite sides of the C-C bond (anti-coplanar) In syn the bond from the carbon to the leaving group (green) and the bond from the other carbon to the hydrogen (blue) are syn-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is zero degrees. This conformation is eclipsed about the carbon-carbon bond In anti the bond from the carbon to the leaving group (green) and the bond from the other carbon to the hydrogen (blue) are anti-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is 180 degrees. This conformation is staggered about the carbon-carbon bond. Because this conformation is more stable than the eclipsed conformation required for syn elimination, anti elimination is preferred in E2 reactions STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKANE Conformations Alkane conformers arise from rotation around sp3 hybridised carbon carbon sigma bonds. The smallest alkane with such a chemical bond, ethane, exists as an infinite number of conformations with respect to rotation around the C-C bond. Two of these are recognised as energy minimum (staggered) and energy maximum (eclipsed) forms. The existence of specific conformations is due to hindered rotation around sigma bonds, although a role for hyperconjugation is proposed by a competing theory. CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMER There are different types of isomer. Isomers such as butane and isobutane that differ in the connectivity of their atom are termed as constitutional isomer.butane and isobutane are only constitutional isomer with the formulaC4H10 . However ,more constitutional isomer are possibles for alkane with more carbon atoms. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKENE The stereochemistry of halogen addition is unequivocally determined by the anti addition and the almost completely restricted rotation of the carbon-carbon bond of the halonium ion. Therefore, the bromination of cis-2-butene yields a racemate of (2R,3R)- and (2S,3S)-dibromobutane, whereas the bromination of trans-2-butene yields the meso compound. CIS TRANS GEOMETRY OF ALKENE If alkenes have two different substituents at each end of the C=C then they can exist as stereoisomers (as geometric isomers ). This is because there is restricted rotation of the double bond due to the pi bond CIS TRANS E-Z SYSTEM The cis- / trans- style is based on the longest chain whereas the E/Z style is based on a set of priority rules.   You need to know both styles. Z SYSTEM cis-but-2-eneor (Z)-but-2-ene The E- and Z- style is more reliable and particularly suited to highly substituted alkenes, especially when the substituents are not alkyl groups. STEREOCHEMISTRY:-FUTURE PROSPECTUS AND APLLICATION 1.Temperature modulation of the stereochemistry of enzymatic catalys. 2.It is used in medical purpose for malarial prevention, control and research 3.The HeI resonance line used for UPS was produced by DC discharge of pure helium gas. 4. Stereochemistry is highly used in biochemistry in various purposes like enzyme catalyst e.t.c. 5. Penning ionization is known to be one of the most important types of chemical reaction in aerospace. Steric shielding effect of methyl group an penning ionization in subsitutional aniline. 6. Stereochemistry is always used in discovering new compounds 7. Stereochemistry is used to know the property and other new property of the existing compound or the compounds not knownà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. REFRENCES Hehre, W.J.(1975),J.AM.CHEM KARLE J.(1973),ELECTRON DIFRACTION IN NACHOD,F.C AND ZUKERMAN, VOL 5 P12. ELIEL L. ERNEST(2009),STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS,WILEY STUDENT EDITION LOUDON MARC G.(2009),4th EDITON ,ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ,OXFORD UNIERSITY PRESS WEBSITE http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Example_of_stereoisomers http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://img121.imageshack.us/img121/5564/81111276.jpgimgrefurl=http://www.chemicalforums.com/index. WWW.CHEMISTRY.UK www.wileyindia/chem.com

Othello †Trust Between Lovers Essay

Our topic is trust between lovers. What is trust? When your friend is spreading some rumor about your lover and your other friend, who would you trust, your lover or your friend? Trust is to believe in someone and give trust to him or her. You put your whole soul and belief to trust them. Trust is like a paper, once it is crumble it will not be perfect again. Trust plays an important role in Othello, because it started as trust and ends with trust. In Othello, the author used handkerchief as a symbol of trust. Every time the owner loses the handkerchief and another lover has the handkerchief, the other couple bonds a strong trust within the circle. Their relationship becomes better and firmer. The trust between Othello and Desdemona collapses when the handkerchief is missing. Meanwhile Emilia and Iago become closer and have a strong trust because of the handkerchief. Othello and Desdemona are the first main couples in the play. They got married at the beginning of the play, which gave rise to the hatred and envy towards Othello. Therefore, their relationship is doomed to be transient. The couple slowly breaks up when their trust slowly collapses. Before their trust slowly collapses, Othello promised Brabantio that he would not harm his daughter. If he does then he will kill himself. â€Å"Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see. She has deceiv’d her father and may thee. † â€Å"My life upon her faith! † (Act 1, Scene 3, line 289-291). This has proven that Othello trust Desdemona with heart and soul that she would not cheat on him. This scene shows that the couple’s love is starting to collapse because of the handkerchief, and Othello feels suspicious about Desdemona cheating on him. Fetch me the handkerchief. † â€Å"My mind misgives. Come, come; You’ll never meet a more sufficient man† (Act 3, Scene 4, line 85-87). This line also shows that Othello feels anxious because of the lost of the handkerchief that has a magic history involving his parents. The handkerchief proves of lover’s loyalty within each other. Iago and Emilia are the second main couples in the play. Their relationship is not as strong as Othello and Desdemona’s relationship at the beginning. Another big difference is that Iago and Emilia bond a stronger trust when Emilia found the handkerchief. â€Å"To have a foolish wife. † â€Å"O, is that all? What will you give me now for that same handkerchief? † â€Å"What handkerchief? † â€Å"A good wench! † Give it me. † (Act 3, Scene 3, line 306-308) (Act 3, Scene 3, line 316) The trust between Emilia and Iago contribute to this tragedy, because Emilia chose to trust Iago and pretended to know nothing about the handkerchief, which leads to betrayal towards Desdemona. However, if Emilia chose the right way and told the truth to help Desdemona when Othello was questioning her, the tragedy might not happen. Near the end of the play Emilia and Iago’s trust broke when she revealed the truth, everything in the play started with trust and ended with trust. She give it Cassio! No, alas, I found it and i did give’t my husband. † â€Å"Filth, thou liest! † (Act 5, Scene 2, line 227-229) It makes us wonder how can the trust between lovers be broken so easily and rebuilding the trust can be so hard. Sometimes to suspect someone can lead to death, and sometimes to trust someone can also lead to death. It becomes too difficult to decide whether to believe in him or her or not. In conclusion, you cannot just trust your friend or your lover because both your friend and your lover are important to you, and losing either one would be painful.

Cultural Differences in Business Essay

I have read a lot about the cultural differences between Asia and the United States. I have talked to some of my Asian acquaintances here in Okinawa. There are quite a few cultural differences in the business worlds in Hong Kong and the States. In the states, employees have stronger feelings about and opinions of the intrinsic contracts of a business. The employees’ inner images come into play with these feelings because they feel that if they have a good and strong inner image then the outer image will automatically be a good one. They feel that extrinsic contracts are not as important, but still an issue when it comes to business. Employees in the United States are not as respectful to management and will even argue if they feel they have a strong point. In some cases this may be a good thing. In the United States we tend to be more aggressive and have strong opinions rather than suggestions. In Hong Kong, they believe that extrinsic contracts are everything. They believe as long as they have a strong front and image then there business will succeed. This is a good thing when it comes to public images because if you look like you have a strong business then the public will not know any different. Intrinsic contracts are not a main concern in Hong Kong. They are pushed to the side until they have a strong front and then it may be worked on.

How The Income Levels And Wealth Of Members Of Congress

Congressional Members by Income Introduction: My topic is the evaluation of how the income levels and wealth of members of Congress affects the bias of voting history and influences members to vote certain ways. I will be gathering data on members of Congress’ wealth and voting history. This topic is relevant because it will either prove that there is a correlation between the net worth of a Congressman and how if anything do his assets affect his voting (i.e. do subsidies influence voting records?). Hypothesis: The hypothesis I’m presenting is if the majority of the members of Congress are wealthy (net worth of $1 million), then they will not be able to relate to the people they serve. I selected the $1 million mark because according to†¦show more content†¦Three ethical issues that must be considered for this research are: †¢ Political ethics and the process of becoming an American politician. This is important because I will show that the current system favors the rich and excludes anyone with no access to a lot of money (over $1 million) from becoming a congressman. †¢ Political ethics and the policies which are created by the politicians who average over the $1million in assets mark. This is important because a smaller segment of our population in terms of wealth and income (higher than the norm), is creating policies that overall, negatively affect the majority of impoverished, undereducated, and underemployed Americans. †¢ Moral obligations of our government. I would like to examine what the moral obligations our government has to those who are not in the rich or super rich segments of American society. This is important to define because since the public elects its leaders, then how much responsibility does the elected official have to â€Å"take care† of the public? How do you define who needs to cared for in terms of concessions (policies such as unemployment, food stamps, healthcare) and how do you define where the responsibility of the individual lies on handing his or her own personal financial health? Suppositions and Supplementary Hypothesis 1. Congressmen and women who are able to campaign have more wealth than the average American, which enables them to build political

Bipolar Is A Roller Coaster Of High And Low Emotions

The mood disorder of bipolar is a roller coaster of high and low emotions. Bipolar has many different components and can manifest as either Bipolar I or Bipolar ( Oltmanns Emery, 2015) Bipolar I is described as having one manic episode. ( Oltmanns Emery ,2015) Mania is a disturbance in mood characterized by symptoms as elation, higher self-esteem, hyperactivity and expedited thought process. (Oltmanns Emery, 2015) To have Bipolar II, a person must have at least one depressive episode and a mild manic episode. A depressive episode includes hypomania meaning in bipolar II a person will not have a full blown manic episode. (Oltmanns Emery, 2015) People who have bipolar have a tough time with their emotions, because their emotions are not stable. They oftentimes feel like they are on an emotional roller-coaster because of the erratic ups and downs ( Oltmanns Emery 2015) Bipolar can include varies emotional, cognitive, somatic, and behavioral symptoms that impedes the lives of people. The emotional symptoms for a person who has been diagnosed with bipolar include that the person experiences mania which, again, is an elated mood of extreme joy and the feeling of begin on top of the world ( Oltmanns Emery ,2015) . Additionally, a person with bipolar can also swing to the other side of the emotional spectrum and experience a depressive episode. A depressive episode, as mentioned above, is characterized by extreme sadness and a feeling of hopelessness.Show MoreRelatedAbnormal Psychology : A Study Of Unusual Emotion, Thoughts Or Behavior1443 Words   |  6 PagesAbnormal psychology is the study of unusual emotion, thoughts or behavior. It basically constitutes individual who are not what society would deem as normal and follow the norms of a particular culture. 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Most Noticeable Film Student Scholarship Essay Samples

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Dagdag Kaalaman Tungkol Sa Shabu free essay sample

The high experienced from ice and base is much more intense, and with intense reactions come powerful responses including comedown, the potential for dependence (addiction) and chronic physical and mental problems. Ice is known as a variety of other names, including: crystal meth, meth, crystal, shabu, batu, d-meth, tina and glass. Base is also known as: speed dexedrine, dexies, dex, shad, go-ee, glass, tina, paste, oxblood, shabu, yabba and crank. Physical effects Both ice and base produce a very intense rush, and depending on how many times it is consumed this effect can last between four and twelve hours. Ice users experience a feeling of exhilaration and increased arousal and activity levels. They feel more awake and it suppresses appetite. When ice or base is used, the receptors in the brain are flooded with monoamines. As more is taken, these receptors can be destroyed – and prolonged ice use can lead to a point when the user no longer feels pleasure without further ice use. We will write a custom essay sample on Dagdag Kaalaman Tungkol Sa Shabu or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Problems Short term: †¢ Increased heart rate †¢ Hypertension (high blood pressure) †¢ Irregular body temperature †¢ Increased breathing rate †¢ Constricted blood vessels †¢ Heart problems. Long term: †¢ Aged appearance †¢ Damaged teeth †¢ Lesions on skin †¢ Risk of stroke †¢ Decreased lung function †¢ Poor cognitive function – memory and decision making issues †¢ Exposure to blood-borne viruses Studies have shown the use of ice and base is associated with brain and mental health conditions, including ruptured blood vessels in the brain, memory-loss indecision, depression and psychosis. These drugs can cause paranoia and hallucinations and the user may also become aggressive and violent – possibly requiring sedation and physical restraint or police intervention. Using ice or base can also lead to social and financial problems and the risk of family breakdown and losing friends. Dependence on ice and base can be physical, psychological, or both People who are physically dependent on ice or base develop tolerance to the drug. This makes it necessary to take more of the drug to get the same effect. They can also find that their body has become used to functioning with the drug present. As a result the user needs to increase their dosage as they develop tolerance and require ice in their system to feel ‘normal’. People who are psychologically dependent on ice or base find that using these drugs becomes far more important than other activities in their lives. They crave these drugs and find it very difficult to stop using it. If a person who is dependent on ice suddenly stops taking it, they will experience withdrawal symptoms, because their body has to readjust to functioning without the drug. People may experience withdrawal symptoms for a couple of weeks. Ice or base withdrawal symptoms may include: †¢ cravings for ice or base †¢ disorientation and poor concentration †¢ decreased energy, apathy and the limited ability to experience pleasure †¢ irritability †¢ depression, anxiety and panic †¢ paranoia †¢ extreme fatigue and exhaustion †¢ headaches †¢ general aches and pains †¢ hunger and increased appetite †¢ disturbed and restless sleep, often interrupted by nightmares.